The Democratic Republic of the Congo: Endless Riches, Unending Conflict

Key Takeaways:

• The DRC is rich in resources but remains one of the world's poorest and most conflict-ridden countries.
• The 1994 Rwandan Genocide brought an influx of Hutu refugees and militias into eastern DRC, intensifying ethnic tensions.
• Corruption and conflict have crippled the economy, leaving most people in poverty.
• Millions are internally displaced, facing food shortages, disease, and limited access to basic services.
• Rwanda’s support for the M23 rebels and Uganda’s backing of armed groups, such as the Allied Democratic Forces (ADF), have deepened the conflict, fueling instability in the country.
• As of 2025, the war continues, with ongoing clashes between government forces, rebels, and foreign-backed militias.

The DRC’s population is a living testament to Africa’s rich diversity. More than 200 ethnic groups call the country home, with Bantu people forming the majority. These groups, including the Kongo in the west near the Atlantic, Luba in the south-central region around the upper Lualaba River, and Mongo in the central basin, have deep historical roots. This is because they had established flourishing kingdoms long before European colonization.

The indigenous groups, including the Pygmies, such as the Bambuti, Twa, and Babinga, are among the earliest inhabitants of the forested areas of the Congo basin in the east and southeast. Traditionally living as hunter-gatherers, the Pygmies serve as a reminder of the region’s ancient past. Smaller communities like the Zande in the north and the Nilotic peoples in the northeast add further layers to this cultural mosaic.

The Hutu and Tutsi, ethnic groups with historical ties to Rwanda and Burundi, have a significant presence in eastern DRC. Their role in past conflicts, especially following the 1994 Rwandan Genocide, has contributed to ongoing regional tensions and security challenges.

With an estimated 1,500 to 2,100 languages spoken across Africa, the DRC reflects this rich linguistic diversity with over 200 languages. Yet, four national languages—Swahili, Tshiluba, Lingala, and Kongo—help connect communities. French, the official language, remains a legacy of colonialism, used in education, administration, and international affairs. Lingala, in particular, has gained prominence as the language of the military and as the voice of Congolese music, which has become a global phenomenon.

The DRC’s rapid urbanization is another defining feature of its people. Kinshasa, the capital, has grown from a small trading post into a massive city with over 16 million people. It is a city of contrasts, with gleaming skyscrapers and vibrant cultural scenes alongside crowded slums. The same pattern is seen in other big cities like Lubumbashi, Kisangani, and Goma, where old colonial divisions have evolved into gaps between the rich and the poor.

The DRC’s demographic trends tell a story of both hope and concern. With more than 46% of the population under 15, the country is one of the youngest in the world. This youthful energy could drive development and change. But it also presents immense challenges. Limited access to education, healthcare, and employment opportunities leaves many young Congolese vulnerable to exploitation.

The DRC is a land of unimaginable riches. Beneath its soil lie abundant, valuable minerals that are in high demand globally. However, this wealth has been more of a curse than a blessing for the Congolese people. Instead of driving development and prosperity, these resources have fueled decades of conflict and human suffering. Let’s explore some of the DRC’s minerals.

Cobalt is one of the DRC’s most valuable resources, making up over 70% of the world’s supply. This mineral is a key component in lithium-ion batteries, which power everything from smartphones to electric vehicles (EVs). As the world shifts toward renewable energy, the demand for cobalt has surged, putting the DRC at the heart of the global supply chain.

Most of the DRC’s cobalt is mined in the southern provinces of Lualaba and Haut-Katanga, particularly around Kolwezi and Lubumbashi.

The story of cobalt mining in the DRC is one of hardship and inequality. While multinational corporations like Glencore and China Molybdenum profit from the country’s vast reserves, local communities see little benefit.

Much of the mining is done by artisanal miners, including children, who work in dangerous conditions for minimal pay. They face severe health risks, such as lung diseases from toxic exposure and frequent accidents due to unsafe working environments. Beyond the human cost, environmental destruction is another consequence—deforestation, polluted water sources, and land degradation are common in mining regions.

Another critical resource is Coltan, used in electronics like smartphones and laptops. The DRC holds about 80% of the world’s coltan reserves, with key mining areas in the eastern provinces of North Kivu and South Kivu. The town of Rubaya in North Kivu is particularly significant, as it hosts one of the largest coltan mines on Earth.

However, coltan mining has become a source of conflict. Armed groups, including the Rwanda-backed M23 rebels, control key mining areas like Rubaya, using the profits to fund their operations.

The minerals extracted in these conflict zones get smuggled into neighboring countries like Rwanda, where they enter global supply chains with little oversight. As a result, while foreign corporations and regional actors reap the benefits, local communities remain trapped in poverty, bearing the brunt of exploitation and violence.

Gold and diamonds are symbols of wealth and luxury, but in the DRC, they are tainted by violence and exploitation. The country is one of Africa’s largest producers of diamonds, with significant deposits found in the Kasai and Orientale provinces. Gold mining is concentrated in the eastern regions, particularly Ituri and South Kivu.

The informal nature of these industries means that little revenue reaches the national treasury. Instead, profits flow into the hands of warlords, corrupt officials, and foreign buyers. This has created a cycle of poverty and instability, with the Congolese people seeing little of the wealth generated by their land.

The roots of the DRC’s instability can be traced back to its brutal colonial past under Belgian rule (1885–1960). Unlike other colonies that had some degree of local governance, the DRC—then known as the Congo Free State and later the Belgian Congo—was treated primarily as a resource to be exploited.

Belgium’s control over the Congo began under King Leopold II, who ruled the territory as his personal property from 1885 to 1908. Leopold’s rule was characterized by unimaginable brutality and exploitation. The Congolese were subjected to extreme brutality, including forced labor, mutilations, and mass killings, as they were forced to extract rubber, ivory, and minerals for European markets.

The atrocities committed were so severe that international pressure eventually forced Leopold to relinquish control of the Congo to the Belgian state in 1908. However, the damage had already been done. The Congolese people were left traumatized, their social structures dismantled, and their resources plundered.

After taking control, the Belgian government continued to exploit the Congo’s vast natural wealth, but with a slightly less overtly brutal approach. The focus shifted to mining minerals like copper, gold, and diamonds and agricultural products like palm oil and cotton. While the Belgians invested in some infrastructure, such as railways and ports, these projects were designed primarily to facilitate resource extraction, not to benefit the Congolese people.

One of the damaging consequences of Belgian rule was the deliberate suppression of education and leadership training among Congolese people. At the time of independence in 1960, the country had only a handful of university graduates and almost no experienced political leaders.

This lack of preparation created a power vacuum, leading to immediate political chaos. In addition, the Belgians had spread ethnic and regional divisions, favoring the Tutsi minority over the Hutu and other ethnic groups, particularly in the eastern regions of the Congo. This later fueled civil wars and separatist movements.

Following independence in 1960, the DRC plunged into political chaos. Joseph Kasa-Vubu became the country’s first president, while Patrice Lumumba was prime minister. However, deep divisions and foreign interference quickly destabilized the new government. Lumumba was overthrown and assassinated in 1961, with Western powers implicated in his death due to fears of his alignment with the Soviet Union.

In 1965, Joseph-Désiré Mobutu (later Mobutu Sese Seko) seized power through a coup backed by Western governments seeking a stable but compliant leader in the resource-rich nation. Under his rule, the country was renamed Zaire, and Mobutu established a highly centralized dictatorship, using patronage and repression to maintain control. Mobutu’s rule was marked by grand displays of wealth, corruption, and the suppression of opposition.

By the 1990s, Mobutu’s grip on power weakened due to economic collapse, growing opposition, and the loss of Western support after the Cold War. His downfall accelerated with the outbreak of the First Congo War (1996-1997) when a rebel coalition led by Laurent-Désiré Kabila, backed by Rwanda and Uganda, overthrew him.

The 1994 Rwandan genocide had a profound and lasting impact on the DRC. Following the genocide, over a million Hutu refugees, including members of the Interahamwe militia responsible for the killings, fled into eastern Congo. This influx destabilized the region, as the refugees brought with them ethnic tensions and violence. The presence of Hutu militias in the DRC provoked Rwanda, which viewed them as a threat to its security.

The 1994 Rwandan Genocide had lasting consequences for the DRC. In its aftermath, over a million Hutu refugees, including members of the Interahamwe militia responsible for the killings, fled into eastern Congo. Their arrival not only strained local resources but also deepened ethnic tensions, as Hutu militias used refugee camps as bases for cross-border attacks into Rwanda.

Viewing these groups as a security threat, Rwanda responded by backing Tutsi militias in Zaire, such as the Banyamulenge, to counter the Hutu presence. This intervention further destabilized the region, inflaming local conflicts between Congolese communities and the new arrivals.

With Mobutu’s regime already weakened, the influx of refugees and foreign-backed militias created the conditions for wider unrest, setting the stage for the First Congo War.

The First Congo War (1996–1997) was largely driven by Rwanda and Uganda’s intervention in Zaire, aimed at toppling Mobutu and eliminating the Hutu militia threat. Rwandan President Paul Kagame and his ruling party, the Rwandan Patriotic Front (RPF), played a central role in orchestrating the invasion, providing military support to a rebel coalition known as the Alliance of Democratic Forces for the Liberation of Congo (AFDL), led by Laurent-Désiré Kabila.

The war quickly escalated, with Mobutu’s army proving ineffective against the well-organized AFDL. As the rebels advanced across the country, regional tensions intensified, with other African nations taking sides. By May 1997, Kabila’s forces had captured Kinshasa, and Mobutu fled into exile in Morocco, where he died shortly after. Kabila declared himself president, renaming the country from Zaire back to the Democratic Republic of the Congo (DRC).

However, Kabila’s rise to power did not bring stability. His former Rwandan and Ugandan allies soon turned against him, fueling new conflicts that would escalate into the Second Congo War.

The Second Congo War, or "The African World War," erupted in 1998 after President Kabila turned against his former allies, Rwanda and Uganda, accusing them of exploiting the DRC’s resources and attempting to control his government. He expelled their troops, a move that alarmed ethnic Tutsis in the country and reignited tensions with local tribes.

In response, Rwanda backed the Rally for Congolese Democracy (RCD), while Uganda supported the Movement for the Liberation of Congo (MLC), led by Jean-Pierre Bemba. Both rebel groups sought to overthrow Kabila, plunging the country into war.

Kabila’s government retaliated by arming Hutu refugees, including ex-militias responsible for the 1994 Rwandan Genocide. The war drew in multiple African nations—Zimbabwe, Namibia, and Angola backed Kabila under the South African Development Community (SADC), while Rwanda and Uganda supported rebel factions.

International pressure led to ceasefire agreements, including the Lusaka Ceasefire Agreement (1999) and the Luanda Agreement (2002), prompting UN peacekeepers (MONUSCO) to intervene. The 2003 Lusaka Peace Agreement established a transitional government, but fighting persisted, especially in Ituri, where ethnic and resource-based conflicts continued, leaving the DRC in a cycle of instability.

Rebel groups in the DRC emerged from decades of political instability, ethnic tensions, and foreign interference, with many exploiting the country’s resources. Failed peace efforts and government-backed militias have fueled ongoing conflict, leaving over 120 armed groups active, especially in the east.

One of the most active groups, M23, emerged in 2012 after former National Congress for the Defence of the People (CNDP) fighters rebelled against poor treatment in the army. Backed by Rwanda, they briefly seized Goma before being pushed back by Congolese forces and a special UN mission. However, they resurfaced in 2022, capturing several towns in North Kivu, and fighting has continued despite temporary ceasefires.

The Allied Democratic Forces (ADF), originally a Ugandan rebel group, has used the DRC as a base since the First Congo War. Though it initially fought for an Islamic state in Uganda, it has since been linked to ISIS and is notorious for carrying out massacres in eastern DRC.

CODECO, formed in 1999, represents the Lendu ethnic group's long-standing feud with the Hema. After years of dormancy, it resumed attacks in 2017 and has targeted both civilians and gold mines in Ituri, intensifying the region’s instability.

Other armed factions, including the government-backed Wazalendos and the Democratic Forces for the Liberation of Rwanda (FDLR), further complicate the conflict. FDLR, an ethnic Hutu group, has ties to the perpetrators of the 1994 Rwandan genocide and is reportedly supported by the Congolese army. Meanwhile, Wazalendo militias, formed by young Congolese responding to President Tshisekedi’s call to defend the country, have been accused of human rights abuses.

The resurgence of the M23 rebel group in the eastern DRC has led to a significant escalation in conflict since late January 2025. The rebels, who had previously been pushed back in 2013, accuse the Congolese government of failing to honor a 2009 peace agreement meant to integrate them into the national army. Renewed clashes have resulted in M23 capturing key territories, including the strategic city of Goma, further destabilizing the region and causing a humanitarian crisis.

Félix Tshisekedi, president since January 2019, has blamed Rwanda for backing M23, a charge that Kigali denies. Tshisekedi has called for increased military efforts and mobilized local militias, such as the Wazalendo, to resist the rebel advance. However, this move has led to further violence, with reports of abuses committed by both sides. The failure to secure lasting peace through negotiations has deepened frustrations among the population as fighting intensifies despite multiple ceasefire attempts.

The conflict has already claimed thousands of lives—-reports indicate that nearly 3,000 people have been killed, and hundreds of thousands have been displaced.

Regional leaders from the East African Community (EAC) and the Southern African Development Community (SADC) have held emergency talks to restore stability. They urge diplomatic solutions and call for an end to hostilities. Despite these efforts, the situation remains volatile, with no clear resolution.

Years of conflict, struggle for power, and corruption have left the Democratic Republic of the Congo (DRC) in economic and social turmoil. Despite its vast mineral wealth, the country remains among the poorest in the world, with a GDP of $66.92 billion and a GDP per capita of $600 as of 2023. By 2024, 73.5% of Congolese citizens lived on less than $2.15 daily. The persistent violence has disrupted key industries, particularly mining, the backbone of economic growth.

The consequences are evident in Congolese citizens' daily struggles. The government’s heavy military spending leaves minimal resources for development. Around 7.2 million people have been internally displaced by the conflict and forced into overcrowded camps where food, clean water, and medical supplies are scarce. Disease outbreaks such as cholera and Mpox continue to ravage vulnerable communities while hospitals struggle to cope with limited resources.

In addition, civilians bear the brunt of the violence, facing mass killings, sexual violence, and forced recruitment by armed groups. Women and girls, who make up 51% of the displaced population, are particularly vulnerable, with reports of rape and exploitation widespread.

Education has also suffered, with schools frequently shutting down or being repurposed as shelters. Many children are unable to continue their studies, leaving an entire generation at risk of being trapped in poverty. Youth unemployment remains high, increasing the likelihood of young people joining armed groups for survival.

The Democratic Republic of the Congo is a land of wealth, yet its people continue to suffer. Decades of war, poor governance, and economic hardship have left millions displaced and struggling to survive. Despite ongoing peace efforts, true stability remains out of reach. The country needs strong leadership, fair resource management, and investment in its people. Without real change, the cycle of conflict will persist, keeping the DRC from reaching its full potential.